Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline

4.) What year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" stands out to you the most? Why?

The year that stands out to me the most in the Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline is 1993. This year is important because the Berkeley Unified School District became the first school district in the United States to make Ethnic Studies a ninth-grade course and a graduation requirement (Rethinking Ethnic Studies 9). This moment shows how Ethnic Studies moved beyond colleges and into K–12 public education. It allowed students to learn about race, culture, and history at a younger age. This year stands out to me because Ethnic Studies became part of the regular school curriculum instead of just an elective. It also shows how local action can lead to long-term educational change. Because of early efforts like this, students today, including those at Foothill College, are able to take Ethnic Studies courses that reflect diverse histories and lived experiences.

 The year that stands out to me the most in the Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline is 1993. This year is important because Berkeley Unified School District became the first school district in the country to make Ethnic Studies a graduation requirement for ninth-grade students (Rethinking Ethnic Studies 9). Unlike earlier years that focused mostly on college students, this moment shows how Ethnic Studies moved into K–12 public education. It helped younger students learn about race, culture, and history early in their education. This year stands out to me because it shows how Ethnic Studies became part of everyday schooling, not just activism or protests. It also proves that Ethnic Studies can exist within public school systems, not only universities. The 1993 decision helped inspire other districts to later adopt similar graduation requirements across California.

Movement for Ethnic Studies Timeline

4.) What year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" stands out to you the most? Why?

One major year that stands out to me on the timeline, that is actually fairly recent, is the year 2014 because it marks a pretty big turning point where Ethnic Studies went from being isolated district initiatives to a coordinated statewide movement within public K–12 education. According to the timeline, 2014 is when El Rancho Unified School District in Pico Rivera, California, passed a high school graduation requirement for Ethnic Studies, resulting in broader change across the state (Rethinking Ethnic Studies Timeline, 2014 Section). This demonstrated how organizing on the local level could translate into structural policy change within public education. What makes 2014 especially impactful is that it started this collective action beyond just one district in the state. The timeline says that the Ethnic Studies Now Coalition (ESNC) was formed in the same year, showing the emergence of a statewide advocacy network focused on expanding and defending Ethnic Studies in public schools. Additionally, two of the largest school districts in California, Los Angeles Unified School District and San Francisco Unified School District, adopted Ethnic Studies as a graduation requirement in 2014, drastically increasing access to Ethnic Studies for students across diverse communities. Rather than existing only as pilot programs or electives, Ethnic Studies became embedded in graduation requirements, reinforcing its role as essential rather than supplemental knowledge. 

The year that stands out to me the most is 1968.This year is important because the Third World Liberation Front (TWLF) was founded. Students from Asian American, African American, Chicano, and Native American communities came together to demand Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University and UC Berkeley. They organized strikes and protests to challenge exclusion and racism in education. Because of their actions, Ethnic Studies became institutionalized for the first time. I think 1968 is important because it shows the power of student activism. Ethnic Studies did not come from the government or administrators. It came from students demanding representation and justice. This year laid the foundation for Ethnic Studies programs in schools across the country today (Movement for Ethnic Studies Timeline).

The year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" that stands out to me the most is 1968, because it showed me just how powerful student voices can be when they are challenged an education system that isn't fair. In 1968, students at San Francisco State College had organized the Third World Liberation Front strike so that they could protest the lack of representation of people of color for the college faculty and curriculum. The students were feeling as though what they were learning didn't reflect their histories, cultures, or even lived experiences. This made education for the students exclusive to some and incomplete to most. Chapter 2 talks about how the strike lasted several months and had become the longest student strike in U.S. history, which shows just how committed the students were when it came to the creation of Ethnic Studies (Espinoza-Kulick, 2.3). What makes 1968 really interesting and stand out to me is also how Ethnic Studies didn't even come from administrators, but from students themselves who demanded justice for all the different cultural backgrounds. Chapter 2 talks about how students actually believed that education was being used as a tool to maintain inequality and by prioritizing Eurocentric knowledge over knowledge of marginalized communities (Espinoza-Kulick, 2.2). So many of the students were even willing to face arrest, expulsion, and suspension because they all believed Ethnic Studies was necessary for a real educational change. The first College of Ethnic Studies was created after the result of the strike in 1968, which had later inspired many programs that were similar across the country. Therefore, 1968 stands out to me because its the moment when students had transformed higher education by insisting to everyone that they mattered, their histories, and cultures mattered. 

The year that stands out to me the most in the Movement for Ethnic Studies timeline is 1968. This year is important because it marks the beginning of the Third World Liberation Front strikes at San Francisco State College and the University of California, Berkeley. Students from different racial and ethnic backgrounds came together to demand Ethnic Studies programs that reflected their histories and communities. What stands out to me is how students were willing to risk arrest and punishment just to be heard, showing how serious they were about changing the education system. Without the actions taken in 1968, Ethnic Studies might not exist in schools today, including at colleges like Foothill (Movement for Ethnic Studies).

4. What year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" stands out to you the most? Why? (Feel free to do additional research online for more context). Be sure to cite course sources using MLA in-text format.

The year that stood out to me the most was in 2010 where Arizona House Bill 2281, the law that added A.R.S. 15-112, was used to shut down Tucson Unified School District's Mexican American/Raza Studies. This really surprised me how a law like this passed and then weaponized for discriminatory purposes. The law did not specifically ban Mexican literature, but passed these 4 law for schools to obey. The exact text from A.R.S. 15-112:

“A school district or charter school in this state shall not include in its program of instruction any courses or classes that include any of the following:

1. Promote the overthrow of the United States government.

2. Promote resentment toward a race or class of people.

3. Are designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group.

4. Advocate ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals.”

 

Arizona Legislature. 15-112. Prohibited Courses and Classes. Arizona Revised Statutes, State of Arizona, https://www.azleg.gov/ars/15/00112.htmLinks to an external site.. Accessed 10 Jan. 2026.

Arizona State Legislature. House Bill 2281. 49th Legislature, 2nd Regular Session, State of Arizona, 2010, https://www.azleg.gov/legtext/49leg/2r/bills/hb2281s.pdfLinks to an external site.. Accessed 10 Jan. 2026.

For context, the Tucson Unified School district launched a Mexican-American Studies program in 1998; similar to the original vision of the Third World Liberation Front. It aimed to provide critical education to a predominant segment of its student population that was of Mexican heritage. This program contained culturally relevant curriculum which kept students significantly engaged and improved graduation rates. (Curricular Innovation. The Third World Liberation Front Research Initiative, University of California, Berkeley, https://twlf.berkeley.edu/legacy-and-impact/curricular-innovation?utm_source=chatgpt.comLinks to an external site.. Accessed 10 Jan. 2026.)

 

In 2010, the political campaign against MARS began. Tom Horne (former Supterintendent of Public Instruction) and John Huppenthal (elected as Supterintendent of Public Instruction in 2010) argued MARS was divisive and violated the "treat pupils as individuals" principle as mentioned in House Bill 2281. It was signed into law by Gov. Jan Brewer in May 2010. (Arizona State Legislature). After the law came into effect, Arizona education officials issued findings against TUSD's MARS program and withheld 10% of TUSD funding until MARS was ended or changed. Eventually, TUSD voted to terminate MARS courses in early 2012 due to the financial strain. Not only did they lose the classes, but book bans were also implemented. Ron Espiritu was part of Librotraficante Caravan who smuggled books by latino authors across territories where they were banned. (Espiritu, Ron. Why Ethnic Studies Matter. Youtube, Ted Talk, 10 Jan. 2026 00:08:35-00:08:55.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XvvMgujD4i8Links to an external site.. )

The official justification for the ban as written in the Arizona Legislature:

• preventing classes that teach resentment or racial antagonism, and

• stopping instruction that separates kids by ethnicity or pushes ethnic solidarity over individuality. Freedom to Read Foundation. Arce v. Huppenthal. Freedom to Read Foundation, https://www.ftrf.org/page/Arce_v_HuppenthalLinks to an external site.

In Gonzalez vs Douglas, the federal judge concluded 15-112 was enacted and enforced not for a legitimate reason, but with discriminatory racial intent and a politically partisan purpose aimed at shutting TUSD's MARS program. The court ruled this law cannot be enforced as of 2017. Gonzalez v. Douglas: Document. The New York Times, 23 Aug. 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/23/us/document-Gonzalez-v-Douglas.htmlLinks to an external site.. Accessed 10 Jan. 2026.

The year that stands out to me the most in the Movement for Ethnic Studies timeline is 1968. This year is important because students formed the Third World Liberation Front and organized protests at San Francisco State University and the University of California, Berkeley (Espinoza-Kulick 2.4). They demanded Ethnic Studies programs because their histories and experiences were not being taught in schools. These students believed education should reflect who they were and where they came from. Their actions led to the creation of the first Ethnic Studies programs and changed higher education in lasting ways. I chose this year over later years, such as 1972, because it shows how students had to fight for their voices to be included, and many of the programs that came later grew out of what began that year. This moment stands out to me because it shows that real change often starts when people speak up and challenge unfair systems.

4. What year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" stands out to you the most? Why?

The year that stands out to me most in the Movement for Ethnic Studies timeline is 1968, when the Third World Liberation Front led the longest student strike in U.S. history to demand Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University and UC Berkeley (Movement for Ethnic Studies,Rethinking Ethnic Studies 9)(Roots of Resistance). While the entire timeline is inspiring, 1968 represents a turning point that shows how collective resistance can create lasting institutional change. The students fighting then could not have imagined how their struggle would impact future generations, including us, and today’s Ethnic Studies requirements across education. 

In a time where quick answers and instant information are easily accessible, the entire timeline is an admirable and inspiring reminder to us that meaningful social change takes long-term dedication, commitment, and sacrifice. Standing with a belief or movement, even when it is difficult, can shape decades of progress and benefit people in the future who are grateful for those struggles. The Ethnic Studies movement is a powerful example of how sustained resistance can transform education and society over time. 

The year that stands out to me the most is 1968, because it really shows how powerful student voices can be when they challenge an unfair education system. In 1968, students at San Francisco State College organized the Third World Liberation Front strike to protest the lack of faculty of color and the absence of courses that reflected their histories and lived experiences. The students felt like what they were learning didn’t represent them, which made education feel exclusive to some and incomplete for many others. Chapter 2 explains that the strike lasted several months and became the longest student strike in U.S. history, showing how committed the students were to creating Ethnic Studies (Espinoza-Kulick 2.3). What I find most interesting is that Ethnic Studies didn’t start from administrators or politicians  it came directly from students demanding change. Chapter 2 also mentions that students believed traditional education was being used to maintain inequality by prioritizing Eurocentric knowledge over the histories of marginalized communities (Espinoza-Kulick 2.2). Many of these students were even willing to risk arrest, suspension, and expulsion because they truly believed real educational change was necessary. Because of their efforts, the first College of Ethnic Studies was created, which later inspired similar programs across the country. That’s why 1968 stands out to me it was the moment students proved their voices could transform higher education.

The year that stands out to me the most is 1968. This year stood out the most to me because it seems like it was a turning point in education, where many educational institutions started to fight for ethnic studies. 1968 is the year that San Francisco State University started their fight for ethnic studies courses, which became the longest student strike. After this, we can see an increase in schools also following and developing ethnic studies courses after the year of 1968. More students at schools like UC Berkeley and UC Santa Barbara went on strike calling for ethnic studies departments (Espinoza-Kulick 2.4).

Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline

4. The year in the “Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline” that stands out to me the most is 1968 because it represents a turning point where students were finally able to use their voices to challenge the American education system that had been controlled by colonial values fully. 1968 stands out because it shows that Ethnic Studies came from student resistance to continue upholding an education system that had previously reinforced racial hierarchies in past history, 1968 marked the foundation of The Third World Liberation Front (TWLF), as well as the fight to institutionalize Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University and University of California, Berkeley, led by Asian American, African American, Chicano, and Native American students. At SFSC, students created their own courses based on the studies that mattered to them, rather than relying solely on traditional university courses, “the Black Studies curriculum covered history, social sciences, and the humanities,” (Espinoza-Kulick 2.4.1)  including courses focused on oppression, culture, and creative expression that were taught away from traditional schooling. The TWLF was described as “a multi-ethnic coalition of students that were awoken to the fact that they were being taught in ways that were dominating and irrelevant to themselves,” (Maeda, Espinoza-Kulick 2.4.1) which explains why students felt compelled to organize and demand educational change. These efforts were not isolated, since “these movements built on intergenerational traditions of protest and advocacy that informed the emergent groups that formed, established, and nurtured Ethnic Studies. (Delgado, Espinoza-Kulick 2.4.1) further showing why 1968 remains such a significant year in the movement, giving students a chance to understand history, cultures, and race. Becoming much more rewarding having fought for it.

Source

This timeline outlines the development of key policies and programs integral to Ethnic Studies in the United States. Its focus is on the movement for Ethnic Studies within public schools nationwide rather than Ethnic Studies in Higher Education. The timeline is not meant to be exhaustive. This timeline is found in the book, "Rethinking Ethnic Studies." 2019. Rethinking Schools, Ltd. Page 9.Links to an external site.

1867

• Howard University is chartered by the U.S. Congress, one of the first historic Black colleges in the nation.

1887

• Kamehameha Schools open in Hawai'i, serving native Hawaiian children.

1915

• The association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH), founded by Carter G. Woodson, seeds the foundation for African American studies.

1920's

• Japanese language schools in California, which are aimed at language and cultural maintenance, are framed as "anti-American."

1926

• Carter G. Woodson establishes Negro History Week, which later became Black History Month in 1969.

1951

• The American Studies Association is founded.

1964

• Mississippi Freedom Schools are established by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); the schools center on civic participation and political education of African American children and youth.

1966

• The Navajo Curriculum Center is founded in Rough Rock, Arizona.

1968

• The Third World Liberation Front (TWLF) is founded. The struggle to institutionalize Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University and University of California, Berkeley, is spearheaded by Asian American, African American, Chicano, and Native American students.
• The Mexican American Studies program is instituted at California State University, Los Angeles.

1969

• "El Plan de Santa Barbara: A Chicano Plan for Higher Education" is drafted, which includes a blueprint for Chicano Studies programs and organizations at colleges across the nation.
• The first Ethnic Studies College at San Francisco State is institutionalized, comprising American Indian Studies, Asian American Studies, Africana Studies, and La Raza Studies (later changed to Latina/o Studies).
• Chicano Studies and Pan African Studies programs are established at California State University, Northridge.
• The Institute of American Cultures (IAC) is founded at UCLA, establishing Ethnic Studies research centers.

1970

• The Native American Materials Development Center (NAMDC) creates a K-6 culturally relevant curriculum for Navajo schools.

1972

• The National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies (NACCS) is founded.
• The National Association for Ethnic Studies is founded.
• The Inter-Ethnic Studies Association in Detroit develops Ethnic Studies Projects: Training Teacher Trainers.
• The American Indian Curriculum Development Program in North Dakota is established.

1973

• Centro de Estudios Puertoriqueños at Hunter College in New York City is founded.

1975

• James Banks' Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies is published.

1979

• Association for Asian American Studies is founded.
• The Ethnic Studies Department at Bowling Green University of Ohio is founded.

1982

• Institute for Puerto Rican Policy Analysis and Advocacy is founded.

1986

• Escuela Aztlan, a grassroots school with culturally relevant social activism, is founded by Unión del Barrio in San Diego.

1987

• The Center for Studies of Ethnicity and Race in America is founded at the University of Colorado, Boulder.

1991

• HB 2859 in Illinois passes, mandating that Black history be integral to the curriculum in Illinois public schools.

1992

• The National Association of African American Studies is founded.

1993

• The Berkeley Unified School District becomes the first district nationwide to make Ethnic Studies both a 9th-grade course and graduation requirement.

1995

• The Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative becomes a vehicle for rooting curricular, pedagogical, and other types of projects in Alaska Native knowledge systems.

1998

• The Mexican American/ Raza Studies (MARS) program is founded in Tucson, Arizona.
• The Betty Shabazz International Charter School, a free Afrocentric school, is founded in Chicago.

2001

• Pin@y Educational Partnerships (PEP) is founded to address culturally relevant curriculum, teacher preparation, and institutionalization of Filipina/o curriculum in local San Francisco schools.
• Asian American/ Asian Research Institute (AAARI) is established by the City University of New York, serving as a hub for research on policies impacting Asian Americans.
• Academia Semillas del Pueblo, a language revitalization academy, is founded as part of the Los Angeles Unified School District.

2005

• Some Philadelphia high schools add an African American Studies graduation requirement.

2007

• The San Francisco Unified School District develops a pilot 9th-grade Ethnic Studies course.
• Kailua High School in Hawai'i establishes Ethnic Studies as a required 9th-grade course.

2010

• HB 2281 is passed, banning Tucson Unified School District's Mexican American/Raza Studies; with 48 course offerings, MARS is the largest Ethnic Studies program for any school district nationwide.
• Institute for Teachers of Color Committed to Racial Justice (ITOC) is formed.

2013

• Chicano Public Schools moves to mandate a comprehensive Black history curriculum.
• Academia Cuauhtli (Eagle Academy) is formed, offering a Mexican American history curriculum rooted in Indigenous principles, serving public school 4th graders in Austin, Texas.
• Xicanx Institute for Teaching and Organizing (XITO) is founded in Tucson, Arizona.

2014

• The Ethnic Studies movement in California is ignited when El Rancho Unified (Pico Rivera, California) passes a high school graduation requirement.
• The Ethnic Studies Now Coalition (ESNC) is formed in California.
• Two major districts in California- Los Angeles Unified School District and San Francisco Unified School District- adopt Ethnic Studies as a graduation requirement.

2015

• Chicago Public Schools introduce districtwide Latinx and Latin American Studies Curriculum.
• Sacramento City Unified School District, Coachella Valley Unified School District and Oakland Unified School District make Ethnic Studies a graduation requirement.

2016

• AB 2016, sponsored by Luis Alejo, requires the development of a California statewide model Ethnic Studies curriculum by 2020.
• Ethnic Studies elective courses are implemented throughout Austin school districts.
• Ethnic Studies pilot courses are created in Providence, Rhode Island.
• In the San Diego Unified School District, the board votes to fully fund the implementation of Ethnic Studies K-12 throughout the district. 
• "White" Washing American Education: The New Culture Wars in Ethnic Studies, edited by Denise M. Sandoval, Anthony J. Ratcliff, Tracy Lachica Buenavista, and James R. Marin, is published.

2017

• Judge A. Wallace Tashima rules HB 2281 unconstitutional on the grounds that banning of Mexican American Studies was motivated by racial animus.
• Ethnic Studies curriculum becomes integral to social studies curriculum in Portland, Oregon.
• Oregon HB 2845 passes, requiring Ethnic Studies integration in K-12 social studies statewide.
• Seattle Public Schools passes resolution to begin districtwide integration of Ethnic Studies courses.
• California passes Native American studies model curriculum (AB 738).
• The Board of Bridgeport Public Schools in Bridgeport, Connecticut, moves to add a graduation requirement that students pass either an American American, Latinx, or Race Studies class.
• Indiana Senate Enrolled Act 337 is passed, requiring all Indiana high schools to offer Ethnic Studies as an elective, and for state standards to be developed to guide the course in communities throughout the state.

Food For Thought (Discussion Forum Entry)

- What year in the "Movement for Ethnic Studies: A Timeline" stands out to you the most? Why? (Feel free to do additional research online for more context)