Treaties, Sovereignty, and the Federal Trust Relationship

Every treaty ever made between the federal government and Native nations (over 500) consists of three important points:

1. Native tribes being recognized as sovereign nations with land;
2. Native tribes being forced or coerced to “give up” land;
3. in exchange for being provided the same or similar resources for all time to continue the tribe’s existence.

New borders and behavior of tribal members were also negotiated. Remember, every treaty has been broken by the U.S. federal government. The rights, protections, and services provided by the United States to individual American Indians and Alaska Natives come from their enrollment in a federally recognized tribe. Federally recognized tribes have a government-to- government relationship with the U.S. The "trust relationship" has certain legally enforceable obligations and responsibilities from the U.S. federal government to enrolled tribal members.

Treaties, Sovereignty, and the Federal Trust Relationship

Treaties between Native nations and the United States are central to understanding American Indian history and present-day Native struggles. Over 500 treaties were made between Native nations and the U.S. federal government. Each treaty followed a similar structure. First, Native tribes were recognized as sovereign nations with land. Second, tribes were forced or coerced to give up large portions of that land. Third, in exchange, the federal government promised to provide resources and protections for all time so tribes could continue to exist. Although these treaties are considered the “supreme law of the land” under the U.S. Constitution, every treaty has been broken by the federal government. This reality reveals a long history of injustice, broken promises, and ongoing violations of Native sovereignty.

The first important point of treaties is the recognition of Native tribes as sovereign nations. This recognition is very important because it confirms that Native nations existed as political and legal entities long before the United States was formed. Native nations had their own governments, laws, economies, and systems of land stewardship. They were not ethnic groups seeking inclusion into the U.S. political system. They were already nations. By signing treaties, the U.S. government acknowledged this sovereignty. However, this recognition was often ignored in practice. While sovereignty was recognized on paper, Native nations were rarely treated as equals.

The second point of treaties involved land loss. Native tribes were forced or pressured to give up vast amounts of land. These agreements were often made under extreme conditions. Tribes faced military violence, starvation, broken promises, and threats to their survival. Many treaties were signed when tribes had little choice. In many cases, Native leaders were misled about the terms of the agreements or were promised protections that were never delivered. As a result, Native nations lost millions of acres of land that had sustained their people for generations. This land loss disrupted Native economies, cultures, and spiritual relationships to place.

Land is not just property for Native people. Land is tied to identity, culture, and survival. It holds sacred sites, burial grounds, food sources, and histories. When land was taken, Native people lost access to these vital resources. The loss of land also meant the loss of political power and independence. Without land, it became easier for the federal government to control Native nations. This control continues today through federal policies and restrictions placed on tribal lands.

The third point of treaties promised resources and services in exchange for land. These promises included food, housing, healthcare, education, and protection. The treaties stated that these services would be provided “for as long as the grass grows and the rivers flow.” This language shows that treaties were meant to be permanent agreements. However, the federal government repeatedly failed to meet these obligations. Rations were withheld. Healthcare was underfunded. Education systems were used as tools of assimilation instead of support. These broken promises caused widespread suffering and poverty in Native communities.

The federal trust relationship developed out of these treaties. This relationship is described as a government-to-government relationship between federally recognized tribes and the United States. Under this system, the federal government positioned itself as a “guardian,” while Native nations were treated as “wards.” This framing created a paternalistic system. Native people were treated like children who could not manage their own affairs. This idea justified federal control over Native land, resources, and governance.

The trust relationship includes legal obligations that are supposed to protect Native interests. In theory, the federal government has a responsibility to act in the best interest of tribes. In reality, this relationship has often been used to limit Native self-determination. Federal agencies control land held in trust. They regulate how resources are used. They can delay or deny tribal decisions. This control undermines tribal sovereignty and reinforces dependence on the federal government.

Enrollment in a federally recognized tribe is also tied to this system. The rights, protections, and services provided to individual American Indians and Alaska Natives come from their enrollment status. This means that Native identity is often defined through federal recognition. Tribes that are not federally recognized are excluded from these protections. This creates divisions among Native peoples and places the power to define Native identity in the hands of the federal government rather than Native communities themselves.

Federal recognition should not determine whether a people exist. Native nations existed long before U.S. recognition. However, the current system forces tribes to seek validation from the same government that displaced them. This process is long, expensive, and deeply political. Many tribes have spent decades trying to gain recognition, often without success. This shows how colonial systems continue to control Native existence.

The breaking of treaties also affects land, water, and mineral rights today. Many legal battles involving pipelines, dams, mining, and water access are rooted in treaty violations. Tribes are often forced to go to court to defend rights that were already guaranteed. This legal process is slow and costly. Even when tribes win, enforcement is not always guaranteed. This places an unfair burden on Native nations to constantly defend their rights.

Despite these challenges, Native nations continue to resist. Tribes fight in courts, organize protests, and build coalitions with other social justice movements. Movements like Red Power, Standing Rock, and LANDBACK show that Native people are not passive victims. They are active agents working to protect their lands, cultures, and futures. These movements emphasize sovereignty, self-determination, and collective responsibility.

Understanding treaties helps change how we view U.S. history. Treaties show that Native nations were not conquered or absorbed. They were negotiated with, even if unfairly. This means the United States has ongoing legal and moral obligations to Native peoples. Recognizing this truth challenges dominant narratives that frame colonization as inevitable or justified.

In conclusion, treaties are not relics of the past. They are living agreements that continue to shape Native life today. The recognition of sovereignty, the forced loss of land, and the broken promises of resources reveal a system built on injustice. The federal trust relationship, while presented as protective, has often limited Native freedom and self-governance. Understanding treaties helps us see the importance of honoring Native sovereignty and supporting Native-led movements for justice. True accountability requires respecting treaties, returning land, and allowing Native nations to define their own futures.

Works Cited

Leal, Melissa, and Tamara Cheshire. American Indian Studies. ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative, CC BY-NC 4.0.

Wilkins, David E., and Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark. American Indian Politics and the American Political System. Rowman & Littlefield, 2011.

Understanding Native Sovereignty movements,

Understanding Native Sovereignty movements, like the Red Power movement, is vital, but it is also important to note that these movements were informed by other social justice movements including the Civil Rights and Black Power movements (see Chapter 11, page 11.3: U.S. Civil Rights and Liberatory Movements). As these movements coincided, informed, and affirmed each other, the exchange between them allowed for greater insight into the oppression each had experienced including the impact of settler colonialism. Vine Deloria Jr. in his (1970) work, We Talk, You Listen, argued that sovereignty could be used as a critical framework for any group seeking liberation (p. 118), and in so being, political power and coalition building between diverse groups could be used to dismantle settler colonialism. We are stronger together and this is where power lies, in our ability to be allies and co-conspirators.

Understanding Native sovereignty movements, such as the Red Power movement, is very important. These movements did not develop in isolation. They were strongly influenced by other social justice movements, including the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power movement (Espinoza-Kulick and Acevedo 11.3). As these movements happened at the same time, they informed and supported one another. This connection helped different groups better understand the shared systems of oppression they faced, especially settler colonialism.

Vine Deloria Jr. explains that sovereignty can be used as a powerful framework for liberation. In We Talk, You Listen, he argues that sovereignty is not only important for Native nations but can also guide other marginalized groups seeking justice and self-determination (Deloria 118). Through shared political goals and coalition building, oppressed groups can work together to challenge and dismantle settler colonial systems. This idea shows that collective action is stronger than isolated resistance.

These movements teach us that solidarity matters. When groups support each other as allies and co-conspirators, they build greater power. Liberation is not achieved alone. It is achieved through cooperation, shared knowledge, and mutual respect across movements.

Explain how American Indian is not an Ethnic Group. Use specific examples to differentiate between cultural and political identities.

Explain how American Indian is not an Ethnic Group.

 Use specific examples to differentiate between cultural and political identities.

 As a special note to the reader, we the authors of this chapter will be using Indian, American Indian, Native, and Native American interchangeably throughout this chapter. We humbly realize that we cannot cover everything there is to know about American Indian Studies/Native American Studies in this one single chapter. The information provided is meant to be an overview of the foundational knowledge in this core discipline area of Ethnic Studies: American Indian/Native American Studies. We would like to encourage you to take Native American Studies courses, and do your own research about any of the content and topics raised in this chapter.

The authors of this chapter explain that they use the terms Indian, American Indian, Native, and Native American interchangeably. This note is important because it shows respect for the many ways Indigenous people identify themselves. It also reminds readers that no single term can fully represent all Native peoples. Each tribe has its own history, culture, and identity. By explaining this at the beginning, the authors help prevent confusion and show humility in their approach to teaching American Indian and Native American Studies.

The authors clearly state that this chapter cannot cover everything about American Indian Studies or Native American Studies. This honesty is important. It helps readers understand that this field is very large and complex. Native history did not begin with colonization, and it did not end in the past. Native people continue to live, govern, and resist today. A single chapter cannot include all stories, nations, and experiences. This reminder encourages readers to keep learning beyond the classroom.

The chapter is meant to be an overview of foundational knowledge. Foundational knowledge means basic ideas that help readers understand the field. This includes concepts such as tribal sovereignty, treaties, colonization, and resistance. These ideas are essential for understanding Native experiences in the United States. Without this foundation, it is easy to misunderstand Native history or repeat harmful stereotypes. The chapter helps correct those misunderstandings by presenting Native perspectives.

American Indian Studies and Native American Studies are core areas within Ethnic Studies. These fields are different from traditional history courses. They do not only focus on dates and events. They focus on lived experiences, power, and identity. They center Native voices instead of speaking about Native people from the outside. This approach is important because Native people have often been erased or misrepresented in education. AIS and NAS work to correct that problem.

The authors encourage readers to take Native American Studies courses. This encouragement shows that learning should not stop with one chapter. Education is an ongoing process. Taking more courses allows students to learn directly from Native scholars and communities. It also helps students understand local tribal histories. This is important because Native experiences are not the same everywhere. Each region and tribe has unique stories and challenges.

The authors also encourage readers to do their own research. This message places responsibility on the reader. Learning about Native history is not only the job of Native people. Non-Native people also have a responsibility to learn. Doing independent research helps prevent ignorance and misinformation. It also shows respect for Native communities. When people take the time to learn, they are less likely to repeat harmful ideas.

This chapter helped me understand that Native American Studies is not just about the past. It is about the present and the future. Native people are still fighting for land, water, and sovereignty. They are also revitalizing languages and cultures. These struggles are connected to history, but they are happening now. Learning this made me realize how important it is to pay attention to Native issues today.

The use of multiple terms for Native identity also helped me reflect on language. Language has power. The words we use can show respect or cause harm. By explaining their word choices, the authors model respectful communication. They show that it is okay to learn and make mistakes as long as we are open and respectful. This lesson is important in all areas of Ethnic Studies.

The chapter also made me reflect on what I previously knew about Native people. Much of what I learned before came from textbooks, movies, or media. These sources often showed Native people as historical figures or stereotypes. This chapter challenged those images. It showed Native people as active agents who shape their own lives and communities. This shift in perspective is one of the most important lessons of Native American Studies.

The authors’ humility stands out in this note to the reader. They do not claim to be able to explain everything. Instead, they invite readers to continue learning. This approach reflects Indigenous values of respect and responsibility. Knowledge is shared, not owned. Learning is a collective process. This idea contrasts with Western education systems that often prioritize individual achievement.

This chapter also helped me understand why Native American Studies is essential within Ethnic Studies. Native history is often treated as a side topic in U.S. history. However, Native peoples were the first inhabitants of this land. Their histories are central to understanding the United States. Without Native perspectives, U.S. history is incomplete and inaccurate.

By encouraging further study, the authors emphasize lifelong learning. Learning about Native issues requires time, effort, and openness. It also requires listening to Native voices. This chapter serves as a starting point. It invites readers to continue the journey of understanding and allyship.

In conclusion, this note to the reader sets the tone for the entire chapter. It explains the use of language, acknowledges limitations, and encourages further learning. It reminds readers that American Indian and Native American Studies is a deep and important field. The chapter provides a foundation, but it is only the beginning. This reflection helped me understand the importance of continuing education, respectful language, and personal responsibility when learning about Native peoples and their histories.

Works Cited

Leal, Melissa, and Tamara Cheshire. American Indian Studies. ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative, CC BY-NC 4.0.

 

4.6: Summary/Review

The conclusion of this chapter offers a powerful reflection on Native life, history, and responsibility. The quote from White Buffalo Calf Woman reminds readers that life must be lived with both the heart and the mind. This teaching explains that all creation is connected. When one person is hurt, everyone is affected. When one person is honored, everyone is honored. This worldview is very different from Western thinking. Western systems often focus on the individual. Indigenous ways of knowing focus on relationships and responsibility to the whole community. This teaching sets the tone for the entire chapter and helps explain the values that guide Native communities.

This chapter challenges what many people think they know about United States history. It presents a different worldview. It shows that Native people were not passive victims of history. They resisted, survived, and continue to exist. The authors explain that genocide, assimilation, and oppression did not only happen in the past. These processes continue today through laws, policies, and systems. Despite this, Native people remain resilient. They continue to protect their cultures, lands, and identities. This perspective helped me understand that Native survival itself is a form of resistance.

American Indian Studies and Native American Studies are important because they center Native voices. Other disciplines often study Native people from the outside. They treat Native communities as objects of research. In contrast, AIS and NAS allow Native people to speak for themselves. These fields focus on lived experiences. They include cultural, social, political, legal, and economic realities. This approach respects Native knowledge and authority. It also challenges dominant narratives that erase or distort Native histories.

The chapter emphasizes tribal sovereignty. Tribal sovereignty means that tribes have the right to govern themselves. Native nations existed long before the United States. Their political systems, laws, and governance structures were already in place. These rights were not given by the U.S. government. However, the federal government has repeatedly violated tribal sovereignty. Laws and policies were created to control Native people and land. These actions limited Native self-determination and self-governance.

One major policy discussed is the Dawes Allotment Act. This law broke up tribal lands into individual plots. It was presented as a way to help Native people farm and assimilate. In reality, it destroyed communal land ownership. It allowed the government and settlers to take large amounts of land. This policy weakened tribal unity and governance. The loss of land had long-term effects on Native communities. It caused poverty, displacement, and cultural disruption.

The chapter also discusses boarding schools. Boarding schools were created as part of an assimilation policy. Native children were taken from their families. They were punished for speaking their languages or practicing their cultures. Many children suffered abuse, neglect, and death. These schools were presented as being for the “benefit” of Native people. In truth, they were tools of cultural genocide. The trauma from boarding schools did not end when the schools closed. It continues across generations.

This leads to the concept of historical trauma. Historical trauma is pain that is passed down from one generation to the next. Native communities experienced repeated violence, loss, and forced removal. These experiences affect mental health, family structures, and community well-being. Understanding historical trauma helps explain present-day challenges faced by Native communities. It shows that these issues are not caused by Native culture. They are caused by long-term oppression.

The Indian Reorganization Act marked a shift in federal policy. It stopped further allotment of tribal lands. It allowed tribes to rebuild governance structures. Tribes could adopt constitutions and manage their own affairs. While the IRA supported tribal sovereignty, it still kept federal control in place. The government remained involved in land trust and decision-making. This shows how Native sovereignty has always been limited by federal authority.

The chapter explains Indigenous ways of knowing. Indigenous knowledge systems view the world as interconnected. Humans, land, water, animals, and spirit are all related. This worldview teaches balance and responsibility. It contrasts with Western systems that prioritize profit and control. Indigenous ways of knowing support sustainability and long-term thinking. These teachings are especially important today as environmental crises continue to grow.

Manifest Destiny and the Doctrine of Discovery are key concepts in this chapter. These ideas justified the invasion and theft of Native lands. They were based on beliefs in white and Christian superiority. These ideologies allowed violence, forced removal, and extermination to be seen as acceptable. Understanding these concepts helps explain how genocide was legalized and normalized. It also shows how these beliefs continue to shape modern policies.

The chapter also discusses reservations and rancherias. These lands were created through treaties and federal actions. Reservations are often described as trust lands. The federal government claims to hold them for Native benefit. In reality, this system limits tribal control. Many reservations were created on poor land. They were often far from traditional territories. This displacement caused economic and cultural harm.

Self-determination and self-governance are central themes. Self-determination means that a people have the right to choose their own political future. Self-governance means tribes can make decisions for their own communities. These rights are essential to sovereignty. However, federal policies have often interfered with these rights. Termination and relocation policies aimed to eliminate tribal identity. These policies sought to absorb Native people into mainstream society. The true goal was to take land and resources.

The chapter also explains settler colonialism. Settler colonialism is not a single event. It is an ongoing process. Its goal is to replace Native people and erase their cultures. This system operates through laws, education, and media. It explains why Native people are often invisible in society. At the same time, they are stereotyped and misrepresented when they are visible.

The idea of “othering” is important. Native people are treated as the “other” in U.S. society. They are ignored in daily life and education. Yet they are highlighted through mascots, movies, and literature. These images are often inaccurate and harmful. Mascots reduce Native identity to symbols. Films often portray Native people as historical or savage. These portrayals deny Native people their humanity and modern existence.

The chapter explains that American Indian is not an ethnic group. It is a political identity. Tribes are sovereign nations with citizenship. Tribal membership is based on political and legal relationships, not race alone. This distinction is important. It explains why tribal sovereignty is a legal issue. It also helps challenge misunderstandings about Native identity.

Decolonization is another key concept. Decolonization is both a process and an action. It begins in the mind. It requires unlearning colonial beliefs. It also requires restoring Indigenous knowledge and practices. Dr. Michael Yellow Bird’s model emphasizes awareness, healing, and action. Decolonization can happen at personal and community levels. It encourages people to challenge systems of oppression and support Indigenous leadership.

The chapter calls for action. The authors encourage readers to support Native artists, writers, and musicians. They encourage voting for laws that support tribal sovereignty. They also promote the LANDBACK movement. LANDBACK is about returning land to Indigenous control. It is about restoring balance, responsibility, and justice. This call to action reminds readers that learning is not enough. Action is necessary.

The timeline provided in the chapter shows how federal policy has shaped Native life. It helps connect past events to present realities. It shows that current struggles are rooted in history. Understanding this timeline helps build accountability and awareness.

Overall, this chapter changed how I understand Native history and the United States. It showed me that Native people are not just part of the past. They are present, resilient, and active. Their knowledge, cultures, and governance systems continue to exist. This chapter taught me the importance of listening. It also taught me that responsibility comes with knowledge. When heart and mind work together, meaningful change is possible.

Works Cited

Leal, Melissa, and Tamara Cheshire. American Indian Studies. ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative, Section 6.6, CC BY-NC 4.0.

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Conclusion

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Whatever you do in life, do the very best you can with both your heart and mind. And if you do it that way, the Power of the Universe will come to your assistance, if your heart and mind are in Unity. When one sits in the Hoop Of The People, one must be responsible because All of Creation is related. And the Hurt of one is the hurt of all. And the honor of one is the honor of all. And whatever we do affects everything in the universe. If you do it that way-that is, if you truly join your heart and mind as One-whatever you ask for, that the Way it's Going to be.

-White Buffalo Calf Woman

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The authors have given the readers a snapshot, a different worldview that may challenge everything you may know about US history, Native peoples, the US federal government and its treatment of Native people and tribes. We have connected this to contemporary issues facing Native people and have revealed the resiliency of Native people in dealing with continued acts of genocide, assimilation and oppression today.

While other disciplines may "study" and teach about Native people, American Indian Studies (AIS) or Native American Studies (NAS) provides the voices, social struggles, contributions and lived experiences of Native people culturally, socially, economically, legally, politically, and academically.

AIS/NAS actively promotes the sustained and thriving existence of Native peoples and sovereign tribal nations with an emphasis on agency and group-affirmation. One could argue that NAS or AIS began way before the movements of the 1960’s in that Native voices can be heard speaking about justice and equity, establishing laws and governing councils, as well as enacting sustainable land and environmental policies of sovereign nations, if one listens. It is our hope you have listened and will now take political and economic action. Support Native artists, musicians and writers by buying their products. Vote for laws that support tribal sovereignty, your local tribes and their economic development. Participate in the LANDBACK movement by purchasing and donating land to your local tribes.

For more information please take a look at the timeline throughout the chapter that we have provided of events that have shaped American Indian federal policy and have affected Native people.

Key Terms

• American Indian, Native American: These terms relate to Indigenous people across the United States and are used interchangeably with “Indian”. Individuals who identify with ancestral or cultural ties and or Native American tribes or Alaskan tribes in the United States. These individuals can be enrolled or non-enrolled members within federally recognized tribes. This research uses both terms to refer to Native people and uses these terms interchangeably to reflect the generation differences.
• Boarding Schools: Another federal government assimilation initiative and prime example of cultural imperialism that was allegedly done for the ‘benefit’ of Native people was the creation of boarding schools. Over 100,000 Native American children were forced to attend boarding schools and thousands of them died because of the neglect and mistreatment at the hands of the religious organizations that ran these schools that were funded by the federal government.
• Dawes Allotment Act: The 1887 Dawes Allotment Act was a way in which the federal government could obtain reservation land, established through treaties. The Dawes Act authorized the President to break up reservation land into small allotments parceled out to individual Native Americans, encouraging farming while at the same time destroying the tribal communally held land base.
• Decolonization: Decolonization is active resistance against colonial powers, and a shifting of power towards political, economic, educational, cultural, independence and power that originate from a colonized nation's own Indigenous culture. This process occurs politically and also applies to personal and societal, cultural, political, agricultural, and educational deconstruction of colonial oppression. Decolonization refers to fighting back against the ongoing colonialism and colonial mentalities that permeate all institutions and systems of government. Decolonizing actions must begin in the mind, and that creative, consistent, decolonized thinking shapes and empowers the brain, which in turn provides a major prime for positive change. Decolonization means a) creating and consciously using various strategies to liberate oneself, adapt to or survive oppressive conditions; b) restoring cultural practices, thinking, beliefs, and values that were taken away or abandoned but are still relevant and necessary for survival; and c) the birthing of new ideas, thinking, technologies, and lifestyles that contribute to the advancement and empowerment of Indigenous Peoples.
• Historical Trauma: Historical trauma is multigenerational trauma experienced by a specific cultural, racial or ethnic group. It is related to major events experienced by a particular group of people because of their status as oppressed, such as slavery, the Holocaust, forced migration, and the violent colonization of Native Americans.
• Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) passed by the U.S. Congress in 1934, encouraged tribes to take control of their “business and economic affairs” to insure a solid land base by putting a halt to the loss of tribal lands through allotment (Dawes). The IRA was a sharp change in direction in federal policy leaning towards tribal sovereignty, replacing assimilationist policies that had been in place since the late 1800’s. The IRA prohibited any further allotment of reservation lands. It also provided a way for tribes to purchase land back and place it in trust through the Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. The IRA of 1934 was meant to further establish tribal self-government politically and economically. Through the IRA, Congress authorized tribes to adopt their own constitutions and bylaws.
• Indigenous Ways of Knowing: This term relates to an alternate paradigm to occidental epistemology and ontology. According to Harris (2002), many Indigenous people view every aspect of creation as continuously interacting with one another.
• Manifest Destiny and the Doctrine of Discovery: Manifest Destiny, coined in 1845 by newspaper editor John O’Sullivan, is the idea that white, Christian Americans were divinely ordained to ‘settle’ (invade and steal) North America. This included a belief in the inherent superiority of white Americans as well as the conviction that they were destined by the Christian God to “conquer” the people and territories of North America. The ideology of Manifest Destiny was used to justify extreme measures to murder and decimate Native populations in order to “free” the land from its inhabitants, including forced removal and violent extermination. The Doctrine of Discovery established a spiritual, political, and legal justification for colonization and the seizure of land not inhabited by Christians.
• Place-Based Learning: A framework for incorporating cultural standards and related practices as the framework for integrating Indigenous knowledge and physical environment into Western education systems (Emekauwa, 2004).
• Reservations and Rancherias: Tract of land owned by a tribe or tribes held in trust status by the federal government for the Indians’ benefit. Reservations were created by treaty, statute, executive order, judicial decision, or order of the secretary of the interior (Wilkins & Stark, 2011, p. 311). Often referred to as prisoner of war camps. Land set aside for homeless Indians. Unique to California.
• Self-Determination is an integral piece of sovereignty and the right of a people to decide upon its own form of government, without outside influence and relates to the freedom and free will of the people of a given area to determine their own political status and independence.
• Self-Governance is the inherent right to make decisions that affect your own people. Tribes have the right of self governance as nations.
• Settler Colonialism refers to an invasive group or culture that actively occupies and attempts to destroy through genocidal acts to replace/erase Native peoples and cultures (Wolfe, 1999; Wolfe, 2006).
• Termination occurred in 1953 when the U.S. Congress adopted an official policy of termination declaring that the goal was to, “as rapidly as possible make Indians within the territorial limits of the United States subject to the same laws and entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities as are applicable to other citizens of the United States” (House Concurrent Resolution 108). The real goal of termination was the theft of Native lands; and a companion policy was the “relocation” of Native people off reservations into urban areas.
• Treaties are considered the “supreme law of the land” (Article 6 of the U.S. Constitution), and are in effect forever and therefore equivalent to federal laws.
• Tribal Sovereignty is the right for tribes to govern themselves within US borders. The right of a tribe to make laws separate from the European and American governmental authorities, and Native American sovereignty existed long before the United States (U.S.) constitution came into existence (Wedding, Vega, & Mark, 2003, p. 131).

Discussion Questions

1. American political officials have often utilized the stereotype of ‘Native people as children’ who need to be ‘looked after’ to justify the taking of Native land and resources. In fact, the federal government successfully elevated itself to the position of ‘guardian’ establishing a patriarchal governing structure with an inherent authority and necessary ‘obligation’ to look out for their ‘wards’. In a literal sense, Native people were legally defined and relegated to the status of ‘children’ under the tutelage of the US government as the parent. How did this ‘relationship’ impact the self determination and sovereign rights of tribes and Native people to identify themselves? How did this further impact treaties and land, water and mineral rights for Native people?
2. Dr. Michael Yellow Bird created a ‘Conceptual Model of Decolonization’, focusing specifically on action we can take to ‘Decolonize our Minds’ in that he defines decolonization as both an event and a process. Elaborate on what he means by this and how you can use the ‘Conceptual Model of Decolonization’ to make changes in your community?
3. Explain how the ‘other’ or ‘othering’ is established and the ramifications of this on Native people and identity. How exactly are Native people made into the societal "other", if they are both ‘ignored’ and ‘highlighted’ in U.S. society? Use examples like Mascots, and images of Native people in film, and literature.
4. Explain how American Indian is not an Ethnic Group? Use examples from the text and other sources to differentiate between cultural and political identities.

Journal Prompts

1. Canary Effect Journal Entry
   1. The Canary Effect (2006) is a documentary film directed by Robin Davey and Yellow Thunder Woman that focuses on the horrors of genocide faced by Native Americans and the racist policies of the United States. The documentary premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and won the Stanley Kubrick Award at the 2006 Traverse City Film Festival. This video was banned in the United States and could only be purchased in Europe when it first came out.
   2. Please make sure to watch "The Canary Effect” before you complete this Journal entry. [Writer's note: The site may not have the most accurate captioning to meets accessibility standards]
   3. Take a moment of self reflection and write 1-2 pages or record (audio/video) a short (3 minute or less) journal entry. Reflect upon the following:
      • The definition of genocide - How does the United Nations define genocide in the movie? Did you know that the United States government purposefully took actions and is still taking action to commit genocide against Native American people today? Governmental policies, Executive (Presidential) Orders, and laws set precedence on how to unfairly take advantage of Native people and their resources (land, water and mineral rights).
      • Discuss 2-3 specific issues that Native Americans have faced (both historically or in present day).
      • What are your reactions/thoughts about the treatment of Native Americans in the United States?
      • Connect direct examples to the theoretical framework to help you better understand the Native American Experience and how you can become an ally.
      • What actions must take place to right these wrongs?
      • What are the barriers you perceive and how can you help remove them?
      • Reflect on your reactions to the video and whether this information has changed you in any way.
2. American Indian Prior Knowledge Journal Entry (to be done at the beginning of the semester)

• Students will create a list of all of the things they know and/or have learned about American Indians. In addition to this list, they will also create a list of all of the films/tv shows that they have watched about or including Americans Indians.
• After creating both lists, students will do a quick Google search on the series "Reservation Dogs" and write a one paragraph summary about the importance of the show.
• This Journal Entry activity allows students to take a quick inventory of how/when/where they see American Indians in their everyday life and also how American Indians are being portrayed in the media dn introduces them to a show that has gained a lot of popularity for it's portrayal of American Indian youth.

Class Activities

Native Land Recognition Activity

Directions

1. First we acknowledge the land, and understand that the land we currently occupy is stolen land. But who is it stolen from? Do you know?
2. For this assignment, you will be doing research on and identifying the original past and present tribe(s) whose land on which you are currently living and working.
3. We must honor these caretakers through our actions in this space and we can do this by doing some research and learning about these Native nations.
4. You will access the following at Native Land Digital. [Writer's note: We acknowledge this site may not be accessible for students using assistive technology]
5. Once on the page make sure that the territories, languages, and treaties are all toggled to on or green.
6. Type in the town where you live or work or any town or city in California that you are interested in, in the search area (line where the image of the tiny magnifying glass is located) of the same box on the top left corner of the website.
7. Results will show up in the bottom left corner of the map that include the tribe(s), their languages and treaties that were ratified.
8. After you have identified the tribe, research key facts about that tribe and their land.

Answer the following questions:

• Can you find the original Native name of the city/town/location that you researched?
• What is the language spoken by the tribe? Learn a few words and share what you learned.
• What are 3 interesting facts about the tribe? You can use historical facts but try to find out contemporary information about the tribe today.
• Can you find any pictures or images of the people? Are they older images or pictures recently taken? Why is this important?
• Why is it difficult to find any treaties that were ratified in California?

Remember to cite your sources.

Social Justice and Hip Hop Activity

1. Watch the music video Stand Up/Stand N Rock and write down two messages that you hear or see in the video and why they are important.
2. Answer the following question - when Emcee One says "this is for the rock, with prayers we stand on it." What do you think he means?
3. Using the information that you have learned in this chapter, add another verse to this song.

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This page titled 4.6: Summary/Review is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Melissa Leal & Tamara Cheshire (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) .

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